Laénara is an agglutinative, head-final language with a rigid SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) word order. Its sound is defined by a rule-based pitch accent system, and its grammar contains several unique features that reflect the culture of its speakers. It is a numeral classifier language, in base-60. As of this writing, there are nearly 600 base words in the lexicon, and nearly 3,000,000 unique words can be derived from them.

Laénara is native to the continent of Alcrést on the planet of Téléra, the setting for the fantasy series The Blades of Alcrést. It is the dominant language of Western Alcrést, and of the Ílorísían Empire.

It was first codified as Lael-ra, 439 years after the first peoples awakened, spoken by the Méru and Ailudé peoples in the valleys of present day Mírésía, the cradle of civilization. In the year 1481 of the First Dawn (FD), the cousin language spoken by the Asékén peoples, Atarana, had its grammar and syntax officially codified in 1839 FD.

Both Lael-ra and Atarana influenced each other in tandem. Laénara speakers, predominantly Méru, soon migrated westward, and eventually the dominant language of the east became Atarana.

Over time, Atarana incorporated elements of Lael-ra and became Atíríníl. Lael-ra continued to change and shift, becoming known as Laénara in the year 135 of the Second Dawn (SD). Later, it would be known as ‘Middle Laénara’. The six group conjugation rules were enacted in the year 26 of the Third Dawn (TD) and the morphology shifted and simplified, marking a huge shift into the recognizable language it is today.

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A Table of Contents

Part I: Structural Foundations

Part II: Syntax & Structure

Part III: The Verb Complex

Part IV: Morphology & Word Formation

Part V: Numbers, Time and Measurement

Part VI: Complex Syntax

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Aitanagari Script

[/aí/ /ta/ /na/ /ga/ /rí/]
Written in the Aítanagarí script. 

Laénara uses the Aítanagarí script, a logosyllabary. Each glyph is a consonant vowel pair, with each vowel represented as a diacritic about the consonant glyph. Many glyphs feature a horizontal bar that runs along the top, a vestigiality from when the script featured a prominent head-line. Over time, the line has been dropped in favor of ‘free’ glyphs. Still, the glyphs maintain an invisible horizon to which they do not cross.

Laénara has particles in its grammar, and when written in Aítanagarí, the particles are written together with the words they modify. A space indicates the boundaries of each word. 

Aítanagarí is primarily written with reed pens and an inkwell.

Stroke Order 

An Aítanagarí glyph has four parts in Laénara:

• Heíra: or the horizon, it is the invisible guideline that runs above the glyphs.
• Síwaré: or the staff, it is the base from which all glyphs are anchored. 
• Aéno: or the ground, it is the glyph itself, below the héìra.
• Kíré: or the life, it is the diacritical marks about the heíra that give the glyph meaning.

Glyphs are written from top-left to bottom-right, in the smallest number of strokes, beginning with the síwaré, the aéno, then the kíré.

Part I: Structural Foundations

Vowels

Laenara uses five core vowels and a set of common diphthongs, for a total of 14 vowels.

Vowel	Pronunciation	Vowel Length
a	[ä] – “father”	Short
o	[o̞] – “soap”	Short
u	[u] – “boot”	Short
é	[eɪ]  – “face”	Long
í	[iː] – “free”	Long

Consonants

There are 20 consonants.

Type	Consonants
Stops	p [p], b [b], t [t̪], d [d̪], k [k], g [g]
Fricatives	f [f], s [s], h [h], w [β], v [v]
Nasals	m [m], n [n̪]
Affricates	sh [ɕ], ch [t͡ɕ], j [d͡ʑ], zh [ʒ]
Approximants	y [j], r [ɾ]
Laterals	l [l]

Mora Structure

The mora structure of Laénara is:

(C)(V)V(n)

• A mora begins with an optional consonant (C)
• It must contain a nucleus, which is a vowel or diphthong (V)V
• It can end with an optional coda, which can only be the consonant n.
  • Examples: aí (V)V, ké (C)V, shan (C)V(n), faí (C)(V)V

Geminate Consonants

• The consonants p, g, m, n, t, s, r, b and k can be geminate between vowels, indicating a stronger pronunciation, and the consonant is held between two morae. 
• Tokka (dragon) is spoken as tok-ka [t̪o̞kːä], though it is written in Aítanagarí as /to/ + /ka/, with a diacritical mark indicating the consonant k is geminate.

Reduced Vowels

Geminate vowels, and vowels preceded by and following certain consonants are spoken as reduced vowels and are transcribed differently in romanization.

Vowel	Pronunciation	Vowel Length
e	[e̞]  – “met”	Short
i	[ɪ] – “bit”	Short

Diphthongs

• The following diphthongs are allowed in Laénara:
  • aé, aí, éa, eí, ié, ía, ío, ué, uo

Long Diphthongs

When long vowels come together to form diphthongs, the first vowel takes its shortened form in favor of extending the second. 

• Example:í + é and é + í become ié and eí
  • írié [iːɾɪeɪ]
  • jíseíka [d͡ʑiːse̞iːkä]

Note that this only applies to diphthongs within the same mora. 

Vowels Preceding Geminate Consonants

Long vowels immediately preceding geminate consonants are sometimes reduced. The vowel é is usually reduced, while the vowel í is rarely reduced. 

• lítto [liːt̪ːo̞]
  • The í vowel is not reduced.
• tekkareí [t̪e̞kːäɾe̞i]
  • The first é vowel has been reduced. 

Diaeresis

The second vowel in a geminate vowel pair is romanized with a diaeresis, indicating that it is pronounced separately from the preceding vowel. The first vowel is reduced if it is long. (ä, ü, ë, ï, ö)

• Example: haní [häːɴi] + íké [iːkeɪ]
  • haniïké [häːɴɪ.iːkeɪ]

When adjacent vowels are part of different mora, they are not diphthongs but instead occur as a hiatus or diaeresis. This usually occurs when using íkaré as a verbalizer, or compounding words. The second vowel is romanized with a diaeresis.

• Example: aíhagé + íké → aíhagéïké (to implement a plan)
  • [aiːhägeɪ] + [iːkeɪ] → [aiːhägeɪ.iːkeɪ]

• Example: /té/ + /été/ → teëté (glove)
  • [t̪e̞.eɪt̪eɪ]

• Example: /koro/ + /ore/ → koroöré (timeless, ancient)
  • [ko̞ɾo̞.o̞ɾeɪ]

Rule Based Pitch Accent

Laénara has a predictable pitch accent that is based on mora weight. The language has a consistent melody with one mora in each word spoken at a higher pitch, called the tíko in Laénara.

Intonation

The morae leading up to the tíko are spoken in a rising tone, reaching an apex, and then falling in tone afterwards. 

da(rising)-kí-(rising)-DÍA(tíko)–ré(falling)
dakídíaré (tornado)

Mora Weight

All morae can be categorized in one of the three types:

• Heavy Mora: If the mora contains a long vowel or diphthong, it is heavy.
• Light Mora: If the mora contains a single short vowel, it is light.
• Flat Mora: If the mora contains the final half of a geminate consonant or the coda n, it is flat regardless of the other vowels and is never accented. 

Single Words

Check the penultimate mora.

• If it is heavy: Accent the mora.
  • Example: solína (robe). The morae are so-lí-na. The penultimate mora, lí, is heavy. 
  • Pronunciation: so-LÍ-na.
• If it is light: The tíko moves back to the antepenultimate mora.
  • Example: orégarí (myth). The morae are o-ré-ga-rí. The penultimate mora, ga, is light. The tíko moves back to the antepenultimate mora, ré. 
  • Pronunciation: o-RÉ-ga-rí.
• For words of one or two morae, the tíko always falls on the first mora. 

Affixed Words

The majority of words spoken fall into this category, as they have a particle attached, have been conjugated or have some suffix. We will explore different words to observe tíko placement. 

• When a word has a single particle or suffix attached, the tíko moves to the final mora of the word, right before the particle or affix, unless the final mora of the word is flat. If the final mora is flat the entire word becomes flat.
  • Moving the tíko: yíjíné: yí-JÍ-né → yí-jí-NÉ wa
  • Flattening the word: tokka: TOK-ka → tok-ka té

• A verb and its tense is not considered an affixed word and the tíko is evaluated as if it were a single word.
  • Example:  aé-TÉ-ré (shines) / aé-TÉ-ga-ré  (will shine)
  • Both words above are evaluated with the single word rules, and both have the tíko on the same mora in this example.

• Affixing any modality moves the tíko. 
• Affixing moves the tiko to the mora before the affixes.
  • SEÍ-ga-né + méra → seí-ga-NÉ-mé-ra
  • aé-TÉ-ré + ru → aé-té-RÉ-ru

• Past tense verbs with an affix are almost always spoken flat due to the presence of the coda n in the mora.
  • SAÍ-run → saí-run-nanaí (flat)

• Affixing additional modalities does not move the tíko. However, an internal negation on present tense -né verbs will make the whole verb flat if the tíko mora inherits the coda from the contracted negation.
  • seí-ga-NÉ + nanaí + méra → seí-ga-NÉ + né (contraction) + mé-ra → seí-ga + nné (contraction) + méra → seí-gan-né-mé-ra (flat)

• In cases where adding an affix creates a geminate vowel (like affixing íkaré or aíré), the affixes are treated as separate words for the purposes of pitch accenting. Each word’s tíko stays in place. Vowel reductions happen as normal.
  • KA-o-séa + AÍ-ré → KA-o-séaÄÍ-ré (kaoséaäíré)
  • ka-RÍ-mí + Í-na → ka-RÍ-miÏ-na (karímiïna)

• Example: Mísara é séndéré wa shoto té, omoré wa réko la damatéaíré.
• Pitching: [mísaRA-é] [séndéRÉ-wa] [shoTO-té], [omoRÉ-wa] [réKO-la] [damaTÉaíré].
• In the example above, each word and modifier pair are in brackets. The tíko is in bold. The morae before the tíko is spoken in a rising tone, and the morae after the tiko is spoken in a falling tone. The constant rising and falling gives Laénara its musical quality. 

Romanization Rules

Romanization is a process of converting text from a non-Latin script into the Latin alphabet. When romanizing, the following rules apply.

• Honorifics and title suffixes are written with a hyphen (-) between them.
  • Example: Aruno-shié (Lord Aruno)
•  The é (e-acute) is used to approximate the vowel [eɪ], and must be used at all times when writing the vowel, unless it is reduced. 
• The í (i-acute) is used to denote that it is a long vowel [i], and must be used at all times when writing the vowel, unless it is reduced.
• Particles are written as small separate words, though they are written as part of the words they modify in Aítanagarí.  
• Numbers are also written hyphenated: (kéla-nuo-umí, sixty and four-tens, 100)
• Diaeresis must be used on the second geminate vowel to indicate it is spoken separately from the first. They are also used in all cases when the second vowel is spoken separately as part of a separate mora.

Part II: Syntax & Sentence Structure

Word Order

Laénara uses a strict Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order. The verb is always the last element in a clause.

• Example: Ríné té moka la mísaré.
  (The girl drinks tea.)
  • Subject: Ríné té (The girl)
  • Object: moka la (the tea)
  • Verb: mísaré. (drinks.)

Head-Directionality

Laénara is consistently head-final, which means that modifiers like adjectives and adverbs always come before the word they describe.

• Adjective + Noun: rabé gamé (sweet fruit)
• Adverb + Verb: chíkaré híraké (soon open)
• Possessive + Noun: lío sa seíra (blue’s sky)
• Noun + Verb: gíré la kulíré (food eat)

Relative Clauses

Complex sentences are also head-final. A descriptive clause comes before the noun it modifies and is linked by the relativizer particle wa. 

• Structure: [Descriptive Clause] wa [Noun]
• Example: Léwa té yométaí ka laéneí sétorun wa odo tané.
  • This, the [we first met] place is. 
  • “This is the place where we first met.” 

The Copulas: Being vs. Existing

Laénara has two copulas, and an irregular verb of existence, aíré.

• He is young. (State of being)
• Where is it? (Existence)

Though they are the same word in English, they are actually two separate concepts. Laénara makes this distinction with separate verbs. 

Tané (A = B) 

Tané is the verb to use when defining what something is. Tané does not take a subject marker (ka), and usually requires the topic marker (té).

• Structure: [Topic] té [Description/Identity] tané.
• Léwa té yomé sa damatémí paké tané.
  (This is just my observation.)
• Logic: This = my observation
  • Léwa =  yomé sa damatémí

Aíré (A exists)

Aíré is the verb to use when talking about the existence of something. It requires a subject marker (the subject’s existence is being discussed).

• Structure: [Subject] té/ka [Descriptive Sentence] aíré.
• Yomé sa akaí ka érí aíré yo?
  (Where is my brother?)
• Logic: where→exist
  • érí→aíré

Ítané (Let A be B)

Ítané is the jussive copula, used to express declarations, commands, strong requests and oaths. It almost demands that a state of being come into existence. Note, that although this translates into “be”, it is not referring to the existence of a thing, but rather its purpose. 

• Structure: [Topic/Subject] [Description] ítané.
• Godénkía né yomé sa kana ítané.
  (Let my sword be for the Empire.)
• Logic: Let sword = be
  • yomé sa kana = ítané

Zero Copula

In the present tense, the copula tané can be dropped entirely, and the sentence ends with the adjective. The relationship is implied.

• Kurísé té míraénaé.
  (“She is beautiful.”)
• Literal: “As for her, beautiful.”

Coupled with pronoun dropping, in the present tense the description can be used without the topic or copula. The sentence becomes mostly contextual, but still in line with conversational Laénara.  

Stative Objects

Native Laénaran speakers make a distinction between the internal feeling and condition and the external expression and action. This is due to the predominant belief that one’s ‘breath’ or soul is not their own, but is instead borrowed from the world and returns to it upon death. And so, internal states are not things that are felt and experienced by the person, but are simply things that a person is aware of. They simply exist.

• Emotional States: Use aíré for emotional states (loving, liking, fearing, wanting)
• Mínata né haní ka aíré.
  (I feel love for you.)
• Literal: “Toward you, love exists.”
• Grammar: The feeling is the subject. You are the destination.

• Physical/Intellectual States: Use tané for physical states (hunger, cold, truth)
• Yomé té néda tané.
  (I am tired.)
• Literal: “As for me, tired am.”
• Grammar: I am the topic, and am tired.

• Action Construction: Use the verbalizer íkaré.
• Yomé ka mínata la haniïké.
  (I cherish/actively care for you.)
• Literal: “I do love upon you.” 

All other aspects and moods use the verb sutéré (to come), to describe the state coming toward the other person. 

Grammatical Particles

Particles are separate words that follow a noun or phrase to define its role, or add meaning or nuance. 

Particle	Function	Example
té	Topic Marker	Mayura té míraénaé tané. (As for Mayura, she is beautiful.)
ka	Subject Marker	Nana ka noré né gíré la aébakéaíré. (Nana is cooking food in the house.)
la	Object Marker	Nana ka noré né gíré la aébakéaíré. (Nana is cooking food in the house.)
né	Locative/Dative (in, to, at, into)	Nana ka noré né gíré la aébakéaíré. (Nana is cooking food in the house.) Kurísé né haní ka sutéré.(To her, love comes.)
ké	“Without” (absence of preceding noun)	Kaku ka kana ké shíaéréaíré.(He is fighting without a sword.)
karu	Limit/Terminus (until, up to)	Nonoka karu maíté.(Wait until tomorrow.)
sa	Possessive (‘s), noun linking	Yomé sa noré fína tané. (Here is my house.) Léwa té Ílorísía sa Makarí tané.(This is Makarí of Ílorísía.)
soko	Ablative (from, out of)	Yín soko, omíré né.(Out of the fire, into the flood.)
ga	“And” / “With (in the company of)”	Sona ga utanéra ka sutéré. (Wisdom comes with time.)
réka	“Or”	Mínata té sowa réka léwa la sakaní tané yo?(Do you want this or that?)
to	“But”, “However”	To yomé té satorírunné. (But I do not know.)
érana	“Because”	Tano tané, érana mínata ga aíre. (I am happy because you are with me.)
moshí	“If”	Moshí saíténanaí, karaní, ajíwarégaruné.(If I don’t sleep then I won’t be able to work.)
sono	“Then, after that”	Kaku té komésa la jutékaína sono, aénué furan. (He had reached the summit, then went back down.)
paké	“Only”, “just”, “solely”	Mo-ré sa yométaí paké tané. (It is just the two of us.)
hé	“Also”, “too”	Kurísé hé furan. (She went too.)
dé	Emphatic	Míraénaé ríné tané dé!(She’s a beautiful girl!)
yo	Interrogative / Question Marker	Osha! Aébarun pía la kulírématé yo? (Hey! Do you want to eat cooked chicken?)
ya	Vocative (Address)	Shoto, ya! Íkaré, yo?  (Boy! What are you doing?!)
saté	Quotative	“Oth’nethali né tattéké,” sate Atíríníl é kuodé kí kuodéruna. (“Travel to Oth’nethali,” he said, while speaking Atíríníl.)
kí	Temporal (When/While/During)	Meíré kí, rísa té faíré.(During winter, snow falls.)
no	“Like”, “as”	Kurísé ka koko no ímarun. (She sang like a bird.)
dana	“Through”, “by way of”, “via”, “across”	Yomé dana nodotté aíra tanéméra.(Through me, all existence is possible.)
wa	Nominalizer/Relativizer	Yomé té karosatomo ka jutérégaré wa kíra la satoríré. (I know the time when the caravan will arrive.) Tattéríké wa né íokí ka aíré.(I like swimming.)
taméní	“In order to”, “For the sake of”	Kurísé té pokarurun zhiéndío la rénshéké wa taméní, noréarun. (She returned home in order to repair her broken heart.) Mínata taméní rana taséananaí, to mínata né néla taséa. (I was not ideal for you, but I was good to you.)
ara to	“Although, while” (contrastive)	Efa té néla tané ara to níroné tanéruméra. (Although Efa is kind, she can be cruel.)
ísa	“Even”	Mínata té shíméré ísa yo? (Do you even care?)
é	“By means of, using”	Rékotaí té ríané dana iésukoba é tattérun.   (They traveled across the ocean by using a galley.)
lén	“Than” (Comparative)	Takékanaé té néro lén takéo tané. (Steel is stronger than iron.)
so	“By, near, beside”	Ko lolabé ka líné so aíré. (There is a little willow tree beside the stream.)

Pronoun Conventions

Speaking in Laénara requires an awareness of social hierarchy, which is reflected in how pronouns are used.

• Pro-Drop: Pronouns and subjects are usually dropped if the subject is clear from context.
  • Example: Tínaílíré la kaoséaäíré.
    ([I] was reading [that] spellbook.)
• Formality: Overusing the first person pronoun yomé “I” is seen as self-important. Using the second person pronoun mínata “you” can be insulting, unless addressing a social inferior. Speakers almost always prefer to use names and titles.
  • Polite: “Marí, ya, téré íkaréaíré?”
    (Marí, what are (you) doing?)
  • Rude: “Mínata, ya, téré íkaréaíré?”
    (What are you doing?)

Honorifics & Titles

In keeping with Laénara’s head-final structure, social ranks function as suffixes attached to a name. For when names are unknown, a substitute rank such as (Raísejí “leader”) may be used alongside another honorific. 

• Structure: [Name]-[Title/Honorific]
• Example: Raísejí-shié (The Lord leader)

General Honorifics 

• -shié (Lord/Master): Used for men of authority. Sato-shié (Lord Sato).
• -shía (Lady/Mistress): Used for women of authority. Séléné-shía (Lady Séléné).

Feudal & Social Ranks

Suffix	Meaning	Example
-godénkí	Emperor	Kétéro-godénkí
-kalan	King / Monarch	Énro-kalan
-rínékalan	Queen	Mayura-rínékalan
-haku	Prince	Makarí-haku
-nané	Princess	Sotíría-nané
-séna	Duke	Míkaé-séna
-koson	Baron	Lutién-koson
-banshé	Knight	Kaété-banshé
-shíkan	Consul	Farro-shíkan
-zhíréko	Priest	Runa-zhíréko
-míya	Priestess	Yuní-míya

Divine Titles

Suffix	Meaning	Example
-amíshié	God (Male)	Ríané sa Noséra-amíshié
-amíshía	Goddess	Yanwa sa Íokié-amíshía

Part III: The Verb Complex

Transitivity

Laénara expresses transitivity through morphology and verbs are said to be transitive or intransitive. Whether the verb needs the object marker la is entirely dependent on the transitivity of the verb.

• Transitive: The action is done to something.
• Intransitive: The action is done by the subject.

Transitive Verbs

These verbs describe a subject doing the action to the object. Transitive verbs need to use the object marker la. 

• Typical Suffix: Often end in -sé or are active verbs like kulíré (eat), garíké (write).
• Example: Sato ka fué la koíruna.
  (“Sato made a flute.”)

Intransitive Verbs

These verbs describe a state change, motion, or even happening to the subject itself. They cannot have a direct object marker (la).

• Typical Suffix: Often end in -ré or are motion verbs like sutéré (come), leíré (walk), séndéré(die). 
• Example: Ténka ka íarérun.
  (The storm raged.)

Verb Forms

Prior to conjugation, there are two verb forms that must be discussed, the base form and the stem form of the verb.

• Base Form: aka ‘lexicon form’. This is the form of the verb as it appears in the lexicon. It ends in a consonant + é. It is used in the present tense / habitual aspect.
  • Example: panéké (to trade), sarébé (to depart)

• Stem Form: most conjugations are only possible with the stem of the verb. The stem is generally formed by removing the final mora.
  • Example: kulíré (base) → kulí (stem)

Haplology and Contraction Rules

Conjugation has a few haplology and contraction rules that shorten the length of verbs. 

Abilitive Negation

The affixes ru + nanaí (abilitive + negation) do not conjugate plainly in sequence. They are instead contracted to (-runé). 

• sétoré + ru + nanaí → sétoréruné
  (was not able to meet)

Internal Negation

When there is an internal negation (a negation between the verb and another affix), -nanai is contracted to né. In the below example, the negation is occurring to the tense itself, turning ‘will sleep’ into ‘will not sleep’. The potential mood is added to the whole, and the meaning of the resulting verb is ‘It is possible that I will not sleep‘.

• Saíté-garé + nanai + mera → saíté-ga-né-méra → saítéganéméra
• [Verb]-[Future Tense]←[Internal Negation]-[Potential]

Doubled Morae

When the internal negation contracted form -né is coupled with present tense -né verbs like (amané, aromé, teríné, téruné), it introduces another haplology rule where the duplicated morae get contracted into -nné. This turns the unwieldy seíganénanaíméra into seígannéméra, which changes the word from 7 morae to 5. This middle -ganné- flows better than -ganenanai-. Vowel reduction applies if there is a é or í immediately preceding the new geminate consonant.

• seígané-nanaí-méra → seígané–né-méra → seíga-nné-méra → seígannéméra
• I might not promise.
  (I can’t make any promises.)

Affix Contractions 

• Internal Affixes (affixes that are between other affixes) are contracted and use the contracted form if it exists. 
• Affixes on the end of the verb are never contracted, except for ru + nanaí which is contracted wherever it occurs.
• Tenses are contracted when there is an affix attached.
• Not all tenses and affixes have a contracted form.

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Leftward Scope Rule

Verb conjugation has a leftward scope. This means that when stacking modalities or placing the negation, each one applies to the affix to the immediate left. If there is no affix to the left, then it applies directly to the verb itself. Refer to the modality and negation tables for more examples.

• Saírun-ma-nanai: [slept]←[desire]←[negation]
• Leftward Scope: Desire is to the left of the negation and so it is negated, turning “want” into “did not want”. Slept is modified by “did not want”.
• Meaning: Did not want to sleep. 

Group I: Tense / Aspect

To begin, all verbs require a tense. The tenses indicate time, as to when the action occurred, generally. You can only select one tense.

Present Habitual (base form) 

The present habitual is the lexical form of the verb and indicates the actions that happen regularly in the present, or actions and states that are happening now. Laénara’s base form covers what is considered the ‘simple present tense‘, with a ‘habitual aspect‘. Generally, it indicates actions that have not been completed.

• Yomé té nodotté asaka garíké.
  (As for me, I write every day.)
• Íshara la okuraré.
  (The sun rises.)

Past Imperfective (stem form + -séa)

The past imperfective is the form of the verb that indicates an action was repeated or habitual in the past, or the action was in progress until something else occurred. It implies an action that ‘used to happen’, or things that the actor ‘was doing’. It is the ‘past tense‘ with an ‘imperfective aspect‘. The distinction is contextual.

• Aínétoséa, to wía níara ké.
  (I used to agree, but now I don’t. / I was agreeing, but now I’m not.)
• Kaku ka ajíwaséa.
  (He used to work. / He was working.)

Perfective (stem form + –run)

The perfective is otherwise known as the ‘past tense’ with a ‘perfective aspect‘. It indicates the action has been completed, or completed some time in the recent past, and the action is whole and complete.

• Ríné té kato la pokarurun.
  (The woman broke the cup.)
• Kurísé té nara né narí la níorun.
  (She smelled the coming rain in the meadow.)

Pluperfect (stem form + –kaína / -kaí)

The pluperfect has a ‘pluperfect tense‘ (past of the past), with an implied ‘perfective aspect‘. It indicates an event or action that was completed before another event. It implies the action ‘had occurred’ some time in the past before another event.

• Kaku té komésa la jutékaína, sono, aénué furan.
  (He had reached the summit, then went back down.)

Distant Pluperfect (Stem + -soina / -so)

The distant pluperfect is otherwise known as the ‘remote past tense’. It has a ‘perfective aspect‘. It indicates the action has been completed a very long time ago. It stands to reason that there were many other events that happened after the distant pluperfect form. It implies the action ‘had occurred long ago’, and is mostly used for story telling and historical contexts.

• Ríasén ka laéna asaka kí umasoína.
  (The stars had been born in the first days.)

Immediate / Simple Future (Base + –garé / -ga) 

The immediate simple future is the ‘future tense‘ with a ‘neutral aspect‘. It indicates the action will occur in the near future. It implies the action hasn’t occurred yet, is not currently occurring and ‘will occur’ or ‘is going to occur’ sometime soon. There is no distinction between the immediate and simple futures.

• Yomé sa manaré la kíyoraségaré.
  (I will clean my room.)

Group II: Modality

Modality refers to the ways that Laénaran verbs express the speaker’s attitude or opinion about the verb. It adds complexity of meaning to the verb. Group two consists of modal expressions or ‘moods’, and they are optional in building verbs. Modality is stackable and the order determines scope.

Abilitive Mood (+ -ru)

This suffix is appended to the verb and gives it the ‘abilitive mood‘. It indicates the ability of the verb by giving it potential ability. Verbs with the abilitive form ‘can occur‘ and are ‘able to occur’. It affirms the ability to do the action. Mixed with the temporal tenses in group one, and you can specify when the verb has or had the ability to occur.

• Yomé té kíbí kí hasíséaru.
  (I used to be able to run when I was a child.)

Desiderative Mood (+ -maté / -ma)

This suffix is appended to the verb and gives it a ‘desiderative mood‘. It indicates the desire of the subject to have the action occur. Verbs with the desiderative form express the speaker’s ‘want or desire‘ for the verb. Coupled with the temporal tenses in group one, and you can specify when the desire for the verb to occur actually occurred.

• Íkarématé.
  (I want to do it.)

Potential Mood (+ -méra / -mé)

This suffix is appended to the verb and gives it a ‘potential mood‘. It indicates that the probability of an action occurring is likely, at least to the point of view of the speaker. Verbs with the potential form express a ‘likelihood to occur’. Coupled with the temporal tenses in group one, and you can specify when the potential for the verb to occur actually occurred.

• Yuko faíréméra.
  (Rain might fall.)

Modality Doublets

The order of the modal suffixes determines the meaning of the resulting verb.

Suffix Order	Literal Logic	Meaning & Nuance
-mate←ru	ABLE(to Want)	“I am able to want.”(I have the capacity to desire this.)
-ru←mate	WANT(to be Able)	“I want to be able to.”(I cannot do it yet, but I desire the ability to.)
-mate←méra	MIGHT(Want)	“I might want to.”(I am unsure of my desire.)
-méra←mate	WANT(Possibility)	“I want it to be possible.”(I desire the chance/possibility of the action, even if it doesn’t happen.)
-ru←méra	MIGHT(be Able)	“I might be able to.”(Unsure of capability.)
-méra←ru	ABLE(to be Possible)	“It can be possible.”(The situation has the potential to exist.)

Modality Triplets

Suffix Order	Literal Logic	Meaning
-ru←mate←méra	MIGHT(Want(Able))	“I might want to be able to.”(I’m thinking about learning how to do it.)
-mate←ru←méra	MIGHT(Able(Want))	“I might be able to want.”(It is possible my desire for the ability to do this will return.)
-mate←méra←ru	ABLE(Might(Want))	“I am able to possibly want.”(I have the capacity to entertain the desire, even if I don’t feel it yet.)
-ru←méra←mate	WANT(Might(Able))	“I want it to be possible that I can.”(I wish the potential for my ability existed.)
-méra←ru←mate	WANT(Able(Possible))	“I want to be able to make it possible.”(I desire the power to create the chance.)
-méra←mate←ru	ABLE(Want(Possible))	“I am able to want it to be possible.”(I have the capacity to hope for a chance.)

Group III: Negation

Negation (+ -nanaí)

This suffix changes the meaning of the verb or of the moods and expresses a denial or of the opposite. This is similar to ‘do not [verb]’ or ‘did not [verb]’ or ‘was not [state]’. Due to the leftward scope rule, the negation is only applied to the leftward modifier. If the verb does not have any of the modalities from group two, then the negation is applied to the verb itself. This gives very different meanings depending on what is being negated.

Negation is fluid in conjugated verbs. The verb itself can be negated with moods conjugated afterwards, or any mood itself can be negated in between other moods.

Present Negations

Mood State	Construction	Resulting Word	Meaning
Simple Positive	Saíté	Saíté	“I sleep.”
Simple Negated	Saíté + nanaí	Saíténanaí	“I do not sleep.”
Abilitive Positive	Saíté + ru	Saítéru	“I am able to sleep.”
Abilitive Ext. Neg	Saíté + ru + nanaí	Saítéruné	“I am not able to sleep.”
Abilitive Int. Neg	Saíté + né + ru	Saíténéru	“I am able to not sleep.”
Desire Positive	Saíté + maté	Saítématé	“I want to sleep.”
Desire Ext. Neg	Saíté + mate + nanaí	Saítémananaí	“I do not want to sleep.”
Desire Int. Neg	Saíté + né + maté	Saíténématé	“I want to not sleep.”
Potential Positive	Saíté + méra	Saítéméra	“I might sleep.”
Potential Ext. Neg	Saíté + méra + nanaí	Saítéménanaí	“It is impossible that I sleep.”
Potential Int. Neg	Saíté + né + méra	Saíténéméra	“It is possible I don’t sleep.”

Past Negations

State	Construction	Resulting Word	Meaning
Simple Positive	Saí-run	Saírun	“I slept.”
Simple Negated	Saí-run + nanaí	Saírunnanai	“I did not sleep.”
Abilitive Positive	Saí-run + ru	Saírunru	“I was able to sleep.”
Abilitive Ext. Neg	Saí-run + ru + nanaí	Saírunruné	“I was not able to sleep.”
Abilitive Int. Neg	Saí-run + né + ru	Saírunnéru	“I could have not slept.”
Desire Positive	Saí-run + mate	Saírunmate	“I wanted to sleep.”
Desire Ext. Neg	Saí-run + maté + nanai	Saírunmananai	“I did not want to sleep.”
Desire Int. Neg	Saí-run + né + maté	Saírunnématé	“I wanted to not sleep.”
Potential Positive	Saí-run + méra	Saírunméra	“I might have slept.”
Potential Ext. Neg	Saí-run + méra + nanai	Saírunménanai	“It is impossible that I slept.”
Potential Int. Neg	Saí-run + né + mera	Saírunnéméra	“It is possible I didn’t sleep.”

Future Negations

State	Construction	Resulting Word	Meaning
Simple Positive	Saíté-garé	Saítégaré	“I will sleep.”
Simple Negated	Saíté-garé-nanaí	Saítégananaí	“I will not sleep.”
Abilitive Positive	Saíté-garé + ru	Saítégaru	“I will be able to sleep.”
Abilitive Ext. Neg	Saíté-garé + ru + nanaí	Saítégaruné	“I will not be able to sleep.”
Abilitive Int. Neg	Saíté-garé + né + ru	Saítéganéru	“I will be able to not sleep.”
Desire Positive	Saíté-garé + maté	Saítégamaté	“I will want to sleep.”
Desire Ext. Neg	Saíté-garé + maté + nanai	Saítégamananai	“I will not want to sleep.”
Desire Int. Neg	Saíté-garé + né + maté	Saítéganématé	“I will want to not sleep.”
Potential Positive	Saíté-garé + méra	Saítégaméra	“I might sleep.”
Potential Ext. Neg	Saíté-garé + méra + nanaí	Saítégaménanaí	“It will be impossible to sleep.”
Potential Int. Neg	Saíté-garé + né + méra	Saítéganéméra	“It is possible I won’t sleep.”

Group IV: Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect clauses or sentences to each other. They generally have the meaning ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘if’. Laénara has all of these separately as particles that attach to nouns, but what about a verb? To express that someone ‘sat and wrote’ or ‘ran and jumped’, we cannot use a particle. Laénara has the conjunction ‘and’ that can be built into the verb. These conjunctions are only for verb chaining. They are optional.

Perfective Conjunction (+ -réa)

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb, adding the conjunction ‘and’ to it. It is only applied to verbs that have a ‘perfective aspect‘ from group 1 (perfective, pluperfect, distant pluperfect). It takes the form: [verb 1 happened] and then [verb 2 happened].

• Kurísé té osharunréa, gaírun.
  (She greeted me and smiled.)

Default Conjunction (+ -rí)

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb, adding the conjunction ‘and’ to it. It is applied to verbs that do not have a ‘perfective aspect‘ from group 1 (present habitual, future). It takes the form: [verb 1 happens] and [verb 2 happens], or [verb 1 will happen] and [verb 2 will happen], or [verb 1 happens] and [verb 2 will happen]. 

• Yomé né moshí mínata ka tíaménérí, gaídé. 
  (When you gaze at me, I smile.)

Group V: Continuity

The progressive and continuous aspects refer to two separate but similar concepts. They express incomplete actions or states that are in-progress. They are non-habitual and imperfective by nature. However, paired with a ‘perfective aspect‘ it becomes a past continuous tense, an action that was in progress some time in the past.

Progressive aspect refers to a current action (doing), and the continuous aspect refers to a current state (being).

Progressive / Continuous (+ aíré)

This suffix may be appended to the end of the verb, and indicates the verb is in progress. The affix is the irregular verb aíré which is the verb of existence, meaning ‘to be’. This step follows the standard grammatical rule for adjacent vowels, utilizing a glottal stop for doubled vowels.

• Kurísé té daíwa né gíré la tékaréaíré.
  (She is buying food in the market.)
• Kaku té noa né yorímmégaäíré.
  (He will be playing in the field.)

Group VI: Evidentiality

Evidentiality adds context about how a speaker knows something. They are used in direct quotations and when someone is speaking. Written word is generally held as a primary source and so evidential grammatical suffixes are not used. While speaking, they are required. Only one can be used at a time.

Direct Sensory (+ -tté)

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb and indicates that the speaker has firsthand knowledge of the event, having seen/felt/heard it happen. From the speaker’s point of view, this is an undeniable fact.

• “Kaku té rubía la toraruntté!“
  (“I saw him as he caught the fox!”)

Inferential (+ -míra)

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb and indicates that the speaker has made a logical deduction based on evidence they have observed. This is used for occurrences that were not observed by the speaker, but were logically deduced to have happened.

• “Aéno ka yasu tanétté, karaní, yuko faíkaímíra.”
  (“I observed that the ground is wet, so I determined it has rained.”)

Indirect / Reported (+ -no) 

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb and indicates that the speaker has secondhand knowledge of the event, having heard about it from someone else. This is used for gossip/hearsay.

• “Yadíra ga suono té eíraírunno.”
  (“I heard that Yadira and her husband separated.”

Common Knowledge (+ -waí)

This suffix is appended to the end of the verb and indicates that the speaker is assuming the statement is true based on perceived common or shared knowledge. It is assumed to be true without solid proof. This is used for educated guesses.

• “Réko té rémémínaé tanéru, to rékotaí té loka tanéwaí.”
  (“It is known that a person can be logical, but people are stupid.”)

Irregular Verbs

Some verbs have conjugated forms that differ from the normal six groups above. Laénara has a handful of them.

Laénara’s irregular conjugations are due to frequent usage in processes called velar elision and vowel collapse. These happen organically over time. Velar elision in particular is common in the southern Alcrést dialect.

Conjugation	tané (to be)	aíré (to exist)	Fíaré (to go)	Sutéré (to come)
Present Habitual	tané	aíré	fíaré	sutéré
Past Imperfective	taséa	aíséa	fíaséa	sutéséa
Perfective	tarun	aírun	furan	suran
Pluperfect	tarína	aírína	fíakína	surakína
Distant Pluperfect	tasína	aísína	fíasoína	surasoína
Future	taruga	aíruga	fíga	suga

Part IV: Morphology and Word Formation

Verb derivation in Laénara is the process of creating new verbs from existing adjectives and nouns. This is accomplished by adding certain suffixes to the word to change its meaning. There are three different suffixes to derive verbs from nouns and adjectives.

• -ré : this suffix creates intransitive verbs from adjectives that mean ‘to become x‘.
• -sé : this suffix creates transitive verbs from adjectives that mean ‘to make x‘.
• -íké: this suffix comes from the verb íkaré and it creates transitive verbs from nouns that mean ‘to do x‘.

Note that not all verbs that end in the -ré, -sé and -ké morae are verbs that have been formed by derivation. Similarly, the stems of many verbs are not adjectives. This is only true for derived verbs.

Once the appropriate suffix is added to a word it can be conjugated via the six-step process. However, there are differences in how the stem form is created for these verbs.

The ‘-ré’ Form 

The -ré suffix added to an adjective is called the ré form of the adjective. The resulting word is a verb that has the meaning ‘to become [adjective]‘. It signifies the start of the action, and the subject undergoing change. The stem form follows the normal stem conjugation rules.

Noun	Meaning	Verb	Meaning	Stem Form
ítosa	free	ítosaré	to become free	ítosa
híta	certain, sure	hítaré	to become certain, to be sure	híta

The ‘-sé’ Form 

The -sé suffix added to an adjective is called the sé form of the adjective. The resulting word is a verb that has the meaning ‘to make [adjective]‘. It signifies a change being forced upon the object of the verb. The stem form follows a preservation rule, where the entire verb is preserved in the stem form. The final mora is never removed.

Noun	Meaning	Verb	Meaning	Stem Form
ítosa	free	ítosasé	to make free, to liberate	ítosasé
híta	certain, sure	hítasé	to ensure, to certify	hítasé

The Verbalizer, Íkaré

The verb íkaré (to do) conjugates normally by itself. However, it can be appended to a noun like a suffix, and creates a verb meaning ‘to do/enact [noun]’. The process of converting a noun into a verb is called denominalization. When used as a denominalizer, íkaré takes on a different form depending on the tense, creating a class of irregular verbs. 

When conjugating the new verb, morae are either merged or dropped from the final verb.

Starting with the word kaída meaning ‘victory‘, appending íkaré as the contracted ‘-iké‘ creates a verb meaning ‘to do/make/create victory’, and in English, ‘to triumph’ is the approximation of the new verb.

Tense	Verb	Notes	Form
Present Habitual	Kaídaíké (to triumph)	No changes to the verb.	-íké
Perfective	Kaída-íké–runa → Kaída-í-na → Kaídaína (triumphed)	Morae -ké and -ru are dropped.	-ína
Future	Kaída-íké–garé → Kaída-í-ré → Kaídaíré (will triumph)	Morae -ké and -ga are dropped.	-íré
Past Imperfective	Kaída-íké-séa → Kaída-í-séa → Kaídaíséa (used to triumph)	Mora -ké is dropped.	-íséa
Pluperfect	Kaída-íké-kaína → Kaída-í-ka → Kaídaíka (had triumphed)	Mora -ké and -na are dropped, and mora -kaí is truncated to -ka.	-íka
Distant Pluperfect	Kaída-íké-soína → Kaída-í-so → Kaídaíso (had triumphed a long time ago)	Mora -ké and -na are dropped, and mora -soí is truncated to -so.	-íso

The verbs that íkaré creates are transitive, and so are actions that are being enacted on the object of the verb. The action is the root noun. We can use an internal state to demonstrate what this means.

Íkaré changes nouns and states into solid action. By appending it to the noun, we get a transitive verb. To enact the verb on the subject is to do the actions that serve as proof of the noun / adjective / state. 

• íokí + íkaré → íokiïké: to do the actions that prove the liking state.
  (to court, to woo)
  
• Yomé sa rínékíbí la íokiïkématé, yo?
  (Do you want to court my daughter?)

Prefixes

Prefixes attach to words and alter their properties. They typically do not alter their parts of speech.

Prefix	Function	Example
í-	Augmentative	kalan (king) → íkalan (high king)

Suffixes

Suffixes attach to words and change their meaning, in some ways fundamentally. They can also change the parts of speech. 

Noun-Forming Suffixes 

These suffixes append to other words to create nouns.

Suffix	Function	Derivation	Example
-jí	Agentive (“one who does”)	Noun/Verb → Noun	mayoka (magic) → mayojí (mage)
-wa	Abstract concept (“-ness”)	Adjective → Noun	tano (happy) → tanowa (happiness)
-mí	Nominalizer (the act/result)	Verb/Adj → Noun	saéké (to dream) → saékémí (a singular dream)
-na	Relational (“one who is”)	Noun/Adj → Noun	kéchu (contract) → kéchuna (familiar)
-ía	“Ruled Land”	Title → Place	séna (duke) → sénía (duchy)
-do	Place, Hall	Noun → Place	zhízhí (sacred) → zhízhído (holy site)

Plural & Collective Suffixes

These suffixes modify a noun’s quantity.

Suffix	Function	Derivation	Example
-taí	Plural (for living things)	Noun → Plural	mayojí (mage) → mayojítaí (mages)
-sén	Collective (a group as one unit)	Noun → Collective Noun	íokíjé (devotee) → íokíjésén (a congregation) Ría (star) → ríasén (all of the stars)

Adjective & Adverb Suffixes

These suffixes create descriptive words.

Suffix	Function	Derivation	Example
-naé	Adjectival (“related to”)	Concrete Noun → Adjective	koma (mountain) → komanaé (mountainous)
-nén	Material (“made of”)	Noun → Adjective	luné (wood) → lunénén (wooden)
-eí	Adverbial (“-ly”)	Adjective → Adverb	haéba (big) → haebeí (greatly)
-naí	Negation (for Nouns/Adj)	Noun/Adj → Negated	jíaro (new) → jíaronaí (not new)

Vowel Gradation

Vowel gradation is the alternation of a vowel in a word that indicates some kind of grammatical information. In Laénara, vowel gradation is the process by which abstract nouns and related adjectives were formed from verbs.

While most descriptive words are derived using Vowel Gradation, Laénara possesses a set of Ancient/Primary Adjectives that are not products of gradation. These describe fundamental concepts and must be memorized as unique roots (e.g., Takéo “Strong,” Mélíné “Gentle,” Aété “Radiant”).

External Qualities

For verbs describing physical actions, nature or external states, the final vowel of the verb shifts from -é to -a.

Verb (-é)	Abstract Noun (-a)	Adjective (-naé)
Yuragé (To sway)	Yuraga (Inconstancy)	Yuraganaé (Inconsistent)
Sodaré (To grow)	Sodara (Growth)	Sodaranaé (Lush)
Nébéré (To press)	Néba (Pressure)	Nébanaé (oppressive)

Emotional Qualities

For verbs describing internal thoughts, emotions or states of mind, the final vowel of the verb shifts from é to í.

Verb (-é)	Abstract Noun (-í)	Adjective (-na)
Amané (To trust)	Amaní (Trust)	Amanína (Trustworthy)
Élaré (To hope)	Élarí (Hope)	Élarína (Hopeful)
Satoríré (To understand)	Satorí (Insight)	Satorína (Insightful)

Participles

Participles are verb forms that act like adjectives. That is to say they act to describe a noun. Laénara has two main participles, the past and future participle. Additionally there is a subordinate clause utilizing the wa particle that acts like a present participle.

Past Participle: (stem + run)

The past participle describes a noun that has received the action. The perfective form must be used for all past participles.

• Pokarurun réko té yogí la satoríré.
  (The broken person understands despair.)

Pokarurun is the past tense of pokaruké, meaning ‘to break’. In this sentence it is describing the noun réko meaning ‘person’, who has received the action of ‘understanding’. When the past tense form of a verb is used as a descriptor, it is in the past participle.

Future Participle: (stem + -una)

The future participle describes a noun intended for the action, or about to be affected. It describes what is fated or intended to happen to a noun. It has its own form with the -una form. 

• Léwa té rénshéuna basto tané.
  (This is the fort to be repaired.)
• Barado né hasíuna baran té aíré.
  (The horse who is to run is in the stable.)

In the first example, rénshéuna is the future participle of rénshéké, meaning ‘to repair’. It is modifying basto, meaning ‘fort’. Combined, the phrase has the meaning ‘repair-destined fort’.

In the second example, hasíuna is the future participle of hasíré, meaning ‘to run’. It is modifying baran, meaning ‘horse’. When the future participle is applied to a living subject, this implies intent or scheduling.
Combined, the phrase has the meaning ‘run-intended horse’.

Present Participle & Gerund

Laénara’s “present participle” construct is neither a participle or a gerund. It is a nominal relative clause that functions as both, depending on what follows it. It has the following structure: [Verb] wa

• Participle: When used with a noun, it acts like a participle.
• [Saíte wa] shoto.
  (The man who sleeps.)
• Meaning: The sleeping man. (Present Participle)

In the example above the wa particle makes a relative clause, and describes the noun immediately following it.  

• Gerund: When used alone (or with a grammatical particle attached), it acts like a gerund.
• [Tattéríké wa] né íokí ka aíré.
  (Toward [the act of swimming.] a liking exists.)
• Meaning: I like swimming.

In this example, the wa particle makes a nominal clause, and creates a noun out of the action of the verb.

Part V: Numbers, Time & Measurement

The Base-60 System

Laénara uses a sexagesimal system for time, calculations, trade and more, with a decimal sub base. Sixty is a highly composite number, with 12 divisors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60). 

• 1-59 aru: Built using the decimal sub base. They are aru, fractional units of kéla.
• 60 aru: The kéla is the base unit. In base 60, this is 1 unit.
• 120 aru: The nié is a common unit. In base 60, this is 2 units.
• 3600 aru: The sara is another common unit. It is the square of the base, 60 units. 

Number	Base-60 (Kéla Base)	Base-10 (Ten Base)
rané (zero)	0	0
ín aru(one thing)	1/60	1
mo aru(two thing)	2/60	2
shan aru(three thing)	3/60	3
nuo aru(four thing)	4/60	4
ío aru(five thing)	5/60	5
naíto aru(six thing)	6/60	6
haté aru(seven thing)	7/60	7
nuyo aru(eight thing)	8/60	8
éto aru(nine thing)	9/60	9
umí aru(ten thing)	10/60	10
umí-ío aru(ten-five thing)	15/60	15
mo-umí aru(two-ten thing)	20/60	20
hanlé(half)	30/60	30
nuo-umí aru(four-ten thing)	40/60	40
ío-umí aru(five-ten thing)	50/60	50
kéla(one-kéla)	1	60
kéla-nuo-umí aru(one-kela-four-ten thing)	1 40/60	100
nié(one nié)	2	120
shan-kéla(three kéla)	3	180
umí-naíto-kéla-nuo-umí aru(ten-six-kéla-four-ten thing)	16 40/60	1000
umí-nié(ten-nié)	20	1200
sara(one-sara)	60	3600

Base-60 avoids some of the ugly fractional arithmetic in Base-10.

Fraction	Base-60	Base-10
1/3	20	0.333333
1/4	15	0.25
1/5	12	0.2
1/6	10	0.166666
1/12	5	0.0833333
1/15	4	0.06666666
1/30	2	0.03333333

Counting

Counting in Laénara is not as simple as saying a number of objects. It is a classifier language, and all nouns are treated as mass nouns, as abstract things. To count them, one must apply a unit of measure to instantiate it. 

Counters

Counters attach to numbers to classify the item type being counted. 

• Counter: [Number]-[Counter] sa [Item]

Suffix	Category	Example
-ré	People/Deities	Ío-re sa kíbítaí (Five children)
-lé	Animate/Spirits	Mo-lé sa dakí (Two winds)
-ku	Rigid/Long	Ín-ku sa kana (One sword)
-ma	Flat/Thin	Shan-ma sa shíra (Three pages)
-rí	Abstract	Ín-rí sa píara (One truth)
-kon	Currency	Ín-kon sa líkon (One likon)
-gí	Divine Items	Naíto-gí sa kana (Six Blessed Swords)

Inanimate Plurality

Laénara distinguishes between animate (living/spiritual) and inanimate (non-living) subjects when marking plurals. Living subjects are appended with the -taí suffix, but non-living plurals rely on three methods for clarity.

• Context:
  • Kana la okoté. (Pass the sword. / Pass the swords)
  • Singular or plural is implied by the situation.
• Counters (Specific)
  • Naíto-ku sa kana. (Six swords.)
• Collective (Group/Set)
  • Kanasén (A set of swords. / The weaponry)
  • Using -sén implies they are functioning like a single unit. Kanasén would be used for all of the swords in an armory, for example. Or an order of many swords.

Ordinal Indicators

Laénara uses the -ví suffix for most ordinals. 

Number	Root	Ordinal	Translation
1	ín	laéna	First
2	mo	mo-ví	Second
3	shan	shan-ví	Third
11	umí-ín	umí-laéna-ví	Eleventh
50	ío-umí	ío-umí-ví	Fiftieth
60	kéla	mítana	Sixtieth
61	kéla-ín	kéla-laéna-ví	Sixty-first

Part VI: Complex Syntax

Causality and Conditionals 

Laénaran speakers, and therefore, the language itself is fatalistic. There is a strong causal thread running though, with things that are given the same weight as things that will be. 

Things that are going to be are treated as destined or fated and have their own grammatical forms, while in other languages they are treated simply as things that may happen next.  

Purpose  

To express purpose, there are a few particles and constructs that are used.

• érana: is a conjunctive particle that has a similar meaning to the word “because”. Literally, it means “by means of the manner”.
  • Usage: [Effect Phrase] érana [Causal Phrase]
  • Shína la fíga érana aété asaka tané.
    (I will go to the garden because it is a radiant/sunny day.)

• taméní: is a conjunctive particle that has a similar meaning to “in order to”.
  • Usage: [Nominal Phrase] taméní [Action]
  • Kana la koíné wa taméní jíaro íshon la tékarun.
    (In order to make a sword, I bought a new hammer.)

• Verb Linking: Using the default verb conjugation -rí, it is possible to show cause and effect in combination with future and past tenses.
  • Usage: [Dependents] [Conjunctive Verb], [Past/Future Tense Verb]
  • Moshí íshara ka aétérégarí, tanorégaré.
    (If the sun shines, I will be happy.)

• Logical Structure: Using the particle moshi or sono, it is possible to create a logical argument meaning “if/then”. In most cases, both are not required to be said in the same sentence. Moshí precedes the phrase it is modifying, as does sono.
  
  Moshi directly is a logical construction whereas sono may not always be. Sono can mean “consequently” or “after that”, but it can also mark an unrelated action that occurs chronologically after the main action.
  • Usage: Moshi [Causative Action], [Effect]. 
  • Usage: [Action] sono [Following Action or Effect ]
  • Moshí léwa la íkaré, méaréruné.
    (If I do this, there’s no turning back.)
  • Kíbí té rísa né luwanaé tarun, sono, paísa ka nanarun.
    (The child was lost in the snow, then the family wept.)

Complex Modality 

Obligation and advice are also expressed as stative construction using the nominalizer particle (wa).

• Obligation (must do)
  • Example: Fiéaré wa békí tané.
  • Meaning: “I must go.”
  • Literal: “Going is a necessity.”

• Advice (should do)
  • Example: Kíyéré wa mérasé tané.
  • Meaning: “You should rest.”
  • Literal: “Resting is an advisability”

• Permission (may)
  • Example: Fíaréméra, yo?
  • Meaning: “May I go?”
  • Literal: “[Am I] able to go?”

Negating Statives and Nouns

There are two different methods of negation, and each one is grammatically valid, but imply different meanings. 

Copula and Stative Negation

Negation applied to the copula via conjugation is a direct, objective and factual denial.

• Léwa té ílíré tanénanaí.
  (This is not a book.)
• Mínata né haní ka aírénanaí.
  (I feel no love for you.)

Negating Nouns and Adjectives

Negation applied to nouns and adjectives use the adjectival negator -naí. It asserts the presence of a negative state. 

• Yomé né hanínaí ka aíré.
  (I feel no love.)

Temporal and Logical Constructors 

Laénara expresses complex timing and logic by treating entire sentences as adjectives that modify a specific noun or particle. It takes the form:
[Descriptive Clause] [Temporal Noun].

Immediate Sequence (As soon as)

This construction treats the preceding sentence as a modifier for the noun shara, meaning “a moment/instant”. The particle né places the main action within that specific moment.

• Structure: [Perfective Verb] + shara né
• Example: Íshara ka okuraruna shara né, énkétaí té totoruna.
• Meaning: “As soon as the sun rose, the enemies marched.”
• Literal: “As for the sun, [the act that it rose] in that moment, the enemies marched.”

Alternate Conditions (Whether… Or)

While réka is the particle meaning “or”, placing two opposing verbs around it creates a conditional state of uncertainty meaning (whether A or B).

• Structure: [Verb] réka [Verb / Negation]
• Example: Yuko té faíré réka faírérunné, satorirunné.
• Meaning: “I do not know whether it will rain or not.”
• Literal: “Rain falls or falls not, I know not.” 

Simultaneous Action (When/While)

Unlike the noun shara, kí is a temporal particle meaning “when” or “while”. It indicates that the main action happens during the states of the first clause. It is also used for temporal nouns indicating periods of time.

• Structure: [Imperfective Verb] + kí, [Temporal Noun] + kí 
• Example: Meíré kí ríon ka hakeí né kawaríré.
  Meaning: “During winter, the lake turns to ice.”

Referencing Previous Ideas 

When referencing a specific statement, argument or abstract idea that was just spoken, Laénara distinguishes between a general object (sowa) and the specific content of speech (níara).

The Aforementioned

The word níara means “before-word”, and specifically targets the concept or sentence previously uttered. Due to the pro-drop nature of the language, topics and subjects are often dropped, and níara can be used to introduce the topic or subject if it is unclear. 

• As a Subject:
• Example: Níara té píaranaé tané.
• Meaning: “What you said before is true.”
• Context: It reestablishes the topic of the conversation by referring to the previous known topic. It could be used if a third person enters the conversation and one of the original two would like to refer to the previous topic that is unknown to the third party. 

• As an Object:
• Example: Yomé té níara la satoríré.
• Meaning: “I understand that point”.
• Context: This makes a reference to the previous topic and has some action done to the concept. It could be used in an educational setting, affirming to the instructor that the subject of instruction has been understood. 

Idioms

Laénara has idioms based mostly on legends and stories told and passed down about the adventures of their gods and goddesses. The sky also figures heavily into their idioms and into Laénara itself, inspiring its light, airy and musical tone.

White Lies

• Laénara: Ko jojí no dakí soko.
• Literal: “As little lies from the wind.”
• Meaning: “White lies.”
• Context: This is said about those little lies that fade on the wind.

Timeless Beauty

• Laénara: Shína té hakéiïna kíra tané.
• Literal: “The garden is a moment frozen in time.”
• Meaning: Something beautiful that should be impermanent, but is apparently not. Among other things, said for women who have aged beautifully. 

Head over Heels

• Laénara: Yomé ka seíra dana aíré.
• Literal: “I am across the sky.”
• Meaning: One that has lost their footing on the ground is at the whims of the winds of love. This is said by one who is madly in love.  

Death from Abundance

• Laénara: Mísara é séndéré wa shoto té, omoré wa réko la damatéaíré.
• Literal: “The man who dies of thirst watches the person who is drowning.”
• Meaning: This is a cruel irony, said about one who has and one who has not. The drowning man is dying from excess, while the thirsty man dies from lack of it.

Stifling Greatness

• Laénara: Ko joharí né han Amí la shímotébénanaí.
• Literal: “Into a small shrine do not place a great god.” 
• Meaning: Do not stifle greatness. This is said for those who are destined for greater things. That one is too big for their background.    

Communication Issues

• Laénara: Ra té nomíkíruna jotu dana.
• Literal: “Words through a silenced mouth.”
• Meaning: This is said when someone doesn’t understand or when someone is speaking what they believe to be nonsense. Speaking through a silenced mouth is a futile effort.

Forgetting Yourself

• Laénara: Rékotaí té mataréru wa la tiérurun arana kínédé wa míro utanéra tarun.
• Literal: “They forgot how to stand because they had knelt for so long.” 

Meaning: A tragic idiom for those who are in servitude, or have a marginalized voice in society.